The Unveiled Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Small Business Growth and Productivity
As we dwell in the epoch of innovation and technology, artificial intelligence (AI) has undeniably left its imprint on diverse industries globally. However, its influence is not limited to giant tech corporations; small businesses are also increasingly harnessing its capabilities to amplify growth and productivity. This article delves into how AI impacts small businesses, analysing its role in enhancing efficiency and unlocking entrepreneurial potential.


Escalating Efficiency with AI Integration
For small businesses, maintaining high productivity levels and efficient operations can be challenging, but AI technology offers promising solutions. AI-based applications and software can automate routine tasks, reducing manual labour and paving the way for quicker response times and enhanced performance.Advancements in AI have led to the development of intelligent virtual assistants, serving as competent office administrators that offer services 24/7. They help in managing tasks such as emails, scheduling meetings, and customer service, enabling the staff to focus on complex tasks requiring human touch and creative thinking.AI tools also eliminate the margin of human error, thereby improving the accuracy of tasks. For example, AI-powered accounting software can handle invoicing, payroll, tax preparation, and financial reports with impressive precision, eliminating errors that could result in financial loss or legal issues.


Unlocking Growth Opportunities through AI Analytics
The advent of AI has revolutionized data analytics, allowing businesses to make well-informed, strategic decisions. AI makes it feasible to process and interpret vast amounts of data in real-time, delivering valuable insights for small businesses. Through predictive analytics, AI can forecast custo

Intro
I’m excited to share thoad (short for PyTorch High Order Automatic Differentiation), a Python only library that computes arbitrary order partial derivatives directly on a PyTorch computational graph. The package has been developed within a research project at Universidad Pontificia de Comillas (ICAI), and we are considering publishing an academic article in the future that reviews the mathematical details and the implementation design.At its core, thoad takes a one output, many inputs view of the graph and pushes high order derivatives back to the leaf tensors. Although a 1→N problem can be rewritten as 1→1 by concatenating flattened inputs, as in functional approaches such as jax.jet or functorch, thoad’s graph aware formulation enables an optimization based on unifying independent dimensions (especially batch). This delivers asymptotically better scaling with respect to batch size. We compute derivatives vectorially rather than component by component, which is what makes a pure PyTorch implementation practical without resorting to custom C++ or CUDA.The package is easy to maintain, because it is written entirely in Python and uses PyTorch as its only dependency. The implementation stays at a high level and leans on PyTorch’s vectorized operations, which means no custom C++ or CUDA bindings, no build systems to manage, and fewer platform specific issues. With a single dependency, upgrades and security reviews are simpler, continuous integration is lighter, and contributors can read and modify the code quickly. The UX follows PyTorch closely, so triggering a high order backward pass feels like calling tensor.backward(). You can install from GitHub or PyPI and start immediately:
GitHub: https://github.com/mntsx/thoad

PyPI: https://pypi.org/project/thoad/

In our benchmarks, thoad outperforms torch.autograd for Hessian calculations even on CPU. See the notebook that reproduces the comparison: https://github.com/mntsx/thoad/blob/master/examples/benchmarks/benchmark\_vs\_torch\_autograd.ipynb.The user experience has been one of our main concerns during development. thoad is designed to align closely with PyTorch’s interface philosophy, so running the high order backward pass is practically indistinguishable from calling PyTorch’s own backward. When you need finer control, you can keep or reduce Schwarz symmetries, group variables to restrict mixed partials, and fetch the exact mixed derivative you need. Shapes and independence metadata are also exposed to keep interpretation straightforward.


USING THE PACKAGE
thoad exposes two primary interfaces for computing high-order derivatives:

thoad.backward: a function-based interface that closely resembles torch.Tensor.backward. It provides a quick way to compute high-order gradients without needing to manage an explicit controller object, but it offers only the core functionality (derivative computation and storage).

thoad.Controller: a class-based interface that wraps the output tensor’s subgraph in a controller object. In addition to performing the same high-order backward pass, it gives access to advanced features such as fetching specific mixed partials, inspecting batch-dimension optimizations, overriding backward-function implementations, retaining intermediate partials, and registering custom hooks.




thoad.backward
The thoad.backward function computes high-order partial derivatives of a given output tensor and stores them in each leaf tensor’s .hgrad attribute. Arguments:

tensor: A PyTorch tensor from which to start the backward pass. This tensor must require gradients and be part of a differentiable graph.

order: A positive integer specifying the maximum order of derivatives to compute.

gradient: A tensor with the same shape as tensor to seed the vector-Jacobian product (i.e., custom upstream gradient). If omitted, the default is used.

crossings: A boolean flag (default=False). If set to True, mixed partial derivatives (i.e., derivatives that involve more than one distinct leaf tensor) will be computed.

groups: An iterable of disjoint groups of leaf tensors. When crossings=False, only those mixed partials whose participating leaf tensors all lie within a single group will be calculated. If crossings=True and groups is provided, a ValueError will be raised (they are mutually exclusive).

keep_batch: A boolean flag (default=False) that controls how output dimensions are organized in the computed gradients.



When keep_batch=False**:** Gradients are returned in a fully flattened form. Concretely, think of the gradient tensor as having:


A single “output” axis that lists every element of the original output tensor (flattened into one dimension).
One axis per derivative order, each listing every element of the corresponding input (also flattened).





For an N-th order derivative of a leaf tensor with input_numel elements and an output with output_numel elements, the gradient shape is:



Axis 1: indexes all output_numel outputs

Axes 2…(N+1): each indexes all input_numel inputs







When keep_batch=True: Gradients preserve both a flattened “output” axis and each original output dimension before any input axes. You can visualize it as:



Axis 1 flattens all elements of the output tensor (size = output_numel).

Axes 2...(k+1) correspond exactly to each dimension of the output tensor (if the output was shape (d1, d2, ..., dk), these axes have sizes d1, d2, ..., dk).

Axes (k+2)...(k+N+1) each flatten all input_numel elements of the leaf tensor, one axis per derivative order.





However, if a particular output axis does not influence the gradient for a given leaf, that axis is not expanded and instead becomes a size-1 dimension. This means only those output dimensions that actually affect a particular leaf’s gradient “spread” into the input axes; any untouched axes remain as 1, saving memory.






keep_schwarz: A boolean flag (default=False). If True, symmetric (Schwarz) permutations are retained explicitly instead of being canonicalized/reduced—useful for debugging or inspecting non-reduced layouts.

Returns:
An instance of thoad.Controller wrapping the same tensor and graph.

⛶import torch
import thoad
from torch.nn import functional as F

#### Normal PyTorch workflow
X = torch.rand(size=(10,15), requires_grad=True)
Y = torch.rand(size=(15,20), requires_grad=True)
Z = F.scaled_dot_product_attention(query=X, key=Y.T, value=Y.T)

#### Call thoad backward
order = 2
thoad.backward(tensor=Z, order=order)

#### Checks
## check derivative shapes
for o in range(1, 1 + order):
assert X.hgrad[o - 1].shape == (Z.numel(), *(o * tuple(X.shape)))
assert Y.hgrad[o - 1].shape == (Z.numel(), *(o * tuple(Y.shape)))
## check first derivatives (jacobians)
fn = lambda x, y: F.scaled_dot_product_attention(x, y.T, y.T)
J = torch.autograd.functional.jacobian(fn, (X, Y))
assert torch.allclose(J[0].flatten(), X.hgrad[0].flatten(), atol=1e-6)
assert torch.allclose(J[1].flatten(), Y.hgrad[0].flatten(), atol=1e-6)
## check second derivatives (hessians)
fn = lambda x, y: F.scaled_dot_product_attention(x, y.T, y.T).sum()
H = torch.autograd.functional.hessian(fn, (X, Y))
assert torch.allclose(H[0][0].flatten(), X.hgrad[1].sum(0).flatten(), atol=1e-6)
assert torch.allclose(H[1][1].flatten(), Y.hgrad[1].sum(0).flatten(), atol=1e-6)


thoad.Controller
The Controller class wraps a tensor’s backward subgraph in a controller object, performing the same core high-order backward pass as thoad.backward while exposing advanced customization, inspection, and override capabilities.InstantiationUse the constructor to create a controller for any tensor requiring gradients:⛶controller = thoad.Controller(tensor=GO) ## takes graph output tensor

tensor: A PyTorch Tensor with requires_grad=True and a non-None grad_fn.
Properties

.tensor → Tensor The output tensor underlying this controller. Setter: Replaces the tensor (after validation), rebuilds the internal computation graph, and invalidates any previously computed gradients.

.compatible → bool Indicates whether every backward function in the tensor’s subgraph has a supported high-order implementation. If False, some derivatives may fall back or be unavailable.

.index → Dict[Type[torch.autograd.Function], Type[ExtendedAutogradFunction]] A mapping from base PyTorch autograd.Function classes to thoad’s ExtendedAutogradFunction implementations. Setter: Validates and injects your custom high-order extensions.
Core Methods.backward(order, gradient=None, crossings=False, groups=None, keep_batch=False, keep_schwarz=False) → NonePerforms the high-order backward pass up to the specified derivative order, storing all computed partials in each leaf tensor’s .hgrad attribute.

order (int 0): maximum derivative order.

gradient (Optional[Tensor]): custom upstream gradient with the same shape as controller.tensor.

crossings (bool, default False): If True, mixed partial derivatives across different leaf tensors will be computed.

groups (Optional[Iterable[Iterable[Tensor]]], default None): When crossings=False, restricts mixed partials to those whose leaf tensors all lie within a single group. If crossings=True and groups is provided, a ValueError is raised.

keep_batch (bool, default False): controls whether independent output axes are kept separate (batched) or merged (flattened) in stored/retrieved gradients.

keep_schwarz (bool, default False): if True, retains symmetric permutations explicitly (no Schwarz reduction).
.display_graph() → NonePrints a tree representation of the tensor’s backward subgraph. Supported nodes are shown normally; unsupported ones are annotated with (not supported)..register_backward_hook(variables: Sequence[Tensor], hook: Callable) → NoneRegisters a user-provided hook to run during the backward pass whenever gradients for any of the specified leaf variables are computed.

variables (Sequence[Tensor]): Leaf tensors to monitor.

hook (Callable[[Tuple[Tensor, Tuple[Shape, ...], Tuple[Indep, ...]], dict[AutogradFunction, set[Tensor]]], Tuple[Tensor, Tuple[Shape, ...], Tuple[Indep, ...]]]): Receives the current (Tensor, shapes, indeps) plus contextual info, and must return the modified triple.
.require_grad_(variables: Sequence[Tensor]) → NoneMarks the given leaf variables so that all intermediate partials involving them are retained, even if not required for the final requested gradients. Useful for inspecting or re-using higher-order intermediates..fetch_hgrad(variables: Sequence[Tensor], keep_batch: bool = False, keep_schwarz: bool = False) → Tuple[Tensor, Tuple[Tuple[Shape, ...], Tuple[Indep, ...], VPerm]]Retrieves the precomputed high-order partial corresponding to the ordered sequence of leaf variables.

variables (Sequence[Tensor]): the leaf tensors whose mixed partial you want.

keep_batch (bool, default False): if True, each independent output axis remains a separate batch dimension in the returned tensor; if False, independent axes are distributed/merged into derivative dimensions.

keep_schwarz (bool, default False): if True, returns derivatives retaining symmetric permutations explicitly.
Returns a pair:

Gradient tensor: the computed partial derivatives, shaped according to output and input dimensions (respecting keep_batch/keep_schwarz).

Metadata tuple



Shapes (Tuple[Shape, ...]): the original shape of each leaf tensor.

Indeps (Tuple[Indep, ...]): for each variable, indicates which output axes remained independent (batch) vs. which were merged into derivative axes.

VPerm (Tuple[int, ...]): a permutation that maps the internal derivative layout to the requested variables order.


Use the combination of independent-dimension info and shapes to reshape or interpret the returned gradient tensor in your workflow.
⛶import torch
import thoad
from torch.nn import functional as F

#### Normal PyTorch workflow
X = torch.rand(size=(10,15), requires_grad=True)
Y = torch.rand(size=(15,20), requires_grad=True)
Z = F.scaled_dot_product_attention(query=X, key=Y.T, value=Y.T)

#### Instantiate thoad controller and call backward
order = 2
controller = thoad.Controller(tensor=Z)
controller.backward(order=order, crossings=True)

#### Fetch Partial Derivatives
## fetch T0 and T1 2nd order derivatives
partial_XX, _ = controller.fetch_hgrad(variables=(X, X))
partial_YY, _ = controller.fetch_hgrad(variables=(Y, Y))
assert torch.allclose(partial_XX, X.hgrad[1])
assert torch.allclose(partial_YY, Y.hgrad[1])
## fetch cross derivatives
partial_XY, _ = controller.fetch_hgrad(variables=(X, Y))
partial_YX, _ = controller.fetch_hgrad(variables=(Y, X))
NOTE. A more detailed user guide with examples and feature walkthroughs is available in the notebook: https://github.com/mntsx/thoad/blob/master/examples/user_guide.ipynb
If you give it a try, I would love feedback on the API, corner cases, and models where you want better plug and play support.

⚠️ Disclaimer
This article assumes you're already somewhat familiar with Kubernetes concepts (Pods, ServiceAccounts) and the basics of JSON Web Tokens (JWTs).
It was a Tuesday.Nothing special - just your average day as a platform engineer. My team's notifications were mercifully quiet, and I thought, "Perfect, I can finally clean up that old Helm chart that's been bothering me."I opened the repo of the underlying image written in Go to double-check the config before merging. As I scrolled through the config file, something caught my eye:log.Println("SA Token:", token)Wait. What?A debug statement. Still in production code. Logging an actual Kubernetes ServiceAccount token. Not cool...I paused. My heart rate didn't. Curious but mostly horrified, I grabbed the token and decoded the payload in my shell:
⛶{
"iss": "https://kubernetes.default.svc.cluster.local",
"kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/namespace": "payments",
"kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/secret.name": "payments-token-6gh49",
"kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/service-account.name": "payments-sa",
"kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/service-account.uid": "f9a2c144-11b3-4eb0-9f30-3c2a5063e2e7",
"aud": "https://kubernetes.default.svc.cluster.local",
"sub": "system:serviceaccount:payments:payments-sa",
"exp": 1788201600, // Sat, 01 Aug 2026 00:00:00 GMT
"iat": 1756665600 // Fri, 01 Aug 2025 00:00:00 GMT
}Default audience claim. A 1-year expiry.This "bad boy" wasn't just a dev leftover - it was a high-privilege token with zero constraints floating around in plaintext logs!


What This Article Covers
In this post, I'll guide you through:
The inner workings of Vault authentication with JWT and Kubernetes methods
What Kubernetes ServiceAccounts and their tokens are, and how they’re (mis)used
How projected ServiceAccount tokens fix many of the hidden dangers of older token behavior
Why you should start adopting token projection and Vault integration today
We'll cover real-world use cases, implementation tips, and common pitfalls - so you don't end up like I did, staring at a:
⛶log.Println("SA token:", token)...and wondering how close you just came to a security incident.


Why This Matters
To really understand why that log statement gave me chills, we need to unpack a few core concepts:
What is a JWT?
How do Kubernetes ServiceAccounts and their tokens work?
And what role do these tokens play in authenticating to systems like Vault?
Let's start with the fundamentals.


What Is a JWT?
If you've been around authentication systems long enough, you've probably seen one of these beasts:
⛶eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9...This is a JSON Web Token (short: JWT).It's a compact, URL-safe format for representing claims between two parties. They're used everywhere: web apps, APIs, and yes — inside your Kubernetes cluster.A JWT consists of three parts:

Header – declares the algorithm used to sign the token (e.g. RS256)

Payload – contains the claims (who you are, what you're allowed to do, etc.)

Signature – a cryptographic seal that verifies the payload hasn't been tampered with
Claims are the heart of a JWT — key-value pairs that describe who the token refers to and what it can be used for. They can be:
Standard claims defined by the spec (e.g., iss, sub, exp, aud)
Custom claims added by the issuer for domain-specific needs



Closer Look at aud
The audience (aud) claim tells who the token is meant for. Think of it as the intended recipient.Example: Imagine a Coldplay concert ticket. It says valid for Stadium X on 01-09-2025. You can't take the same ticket and use it at Stadium Y — they'll reject it (...trust me, I tried).A JWT works the same way:
If the token has "aud": "https://kubernetes.default.svc", then only the Kubernetes API server should accept it.
If some other service receives that token, the aud won't match and the token must be rejected.
Without this check, a token could be misused anywhere that trusts the signing key. With aud, it's scoped to the right system.


Kubernetes and ServiceAccounts
Kubernetes is an open-source platform that orchestrates containers at scale. At its heart is the Pod — the smallest deployable unit.But every pod needs an identity. That's where ServiceAccounts come in.


ServiceAccounts 101

Every Pod references a ServiceAccount (default if none is set), but a token is only mounted if enabled
Kubernetes mounts the identity at:

⛶/var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/token
That token is a JWT, signed by the Kubernetes control plane
It lets the pod authenticate with the API server — and sometimes even external systems like Vault



The Catch
Until recently, these tokens came with dangerous defaults:
Long-lived (often valid for a year)
Previous to Kubernetes v1.24, there was no default audience set (https://kubernetes.default.svc)
Automatically mounted into every pod, even if unused



Enter Vault: The Gatekeeper of Secrets
HashiCorp Vault is your cluster’s paranoid librarian:
it stores API keys, certs, passwords — and only hands them out when it's sure you should have them.How? Authentication methods.


Vault Authentication Methods

Username password
AppRole
LDAP
Kubernetes
JWT
Let's zoom into the last two.


Kubernetes Auth Method

Pod sends its mounted ServiceAccount token to Vault
Vault validates it against the Kubernetes API
If valid, Vault maps it to a policy
This is simple and works well when Vault runs inside the cluster.


JWT Auth Method

Vault verifies the JWT itself (signature, claims, expiration)
No need for Kubernetes API access
More portable
Rule of thumb:
Use Kubernetes if Vault runs inside your cluster and simplicity matters
Use JWT if you want portability, stronger boundaries, and flexibility



Projected Tokens: Because It's 2025
Old tokens were static and long-lived. Projected tokens fix this mess.Instead of mounting a one-year token into every pod, Kubernetes can now generate short-lived, audience-bound tokens on demand.


What You Get

Short TTL (e.g. 10 minutes)
Audience restrictions (aud: vault)
Automatic rotation by kubelet

No automatic mounting into pods



Example Pod with Projected Token
⛶apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: projected-token-test-pod
namespace: demo
spec:
serviceAccountName: projected-auth-sa
containers:
- name: projected-auth-test
image: demo/vault-curl:latest
command: ["sleep", "3600"]
volumeMounts:
- name: token
mountPath: /var/run/secrets/projected
readOnly: true
volumes:
- name: token
projected:
sources:
- serviceAccountToken:
path: token
expirationSeconds: 600
audience: vault


Why Vault Loves This
Vault's JWT auth method is tailor-made for projected tokens:
It parses and verifies the JWT signature (via a configured PEM key or JWKS endpoint)
Validates all claims (aud, sub, exp, iss) locally
Issues secrets only if every check passes
Minimal dependencies. Strong claim validation. Secure, verifiable checks.


Back to the Log
Imagine you stumble upon this in a Go app:
⛶log.Println("Auth Token:", token)

Old world: a one-year, cluster-wide token with no audience. A time bomb.

New world: a 10-minute token, scoped to Vault, rotating automatically.
It's still bad to log tokens — but at least it's not catastrophic.


Try It Yourself: Vault + K8s AuthN Lab
I've built a hands-on demo repo where you can test this locally with KIND (Kubernetes in Docker) and Vault Helm charts:? GitHub: VincentvonBueren/erfa-projected-sa-token


What's Inside

KIND cluster with Vault
Both Kubernetes and JWT auth methods enabled
Vault policies and roles
Four demo pods:


Kubernetes auth method
JWT with static token
JWT with projected token
JWT with wrong audience (failure demo)








Final Drop ?
If your pods still run with default, long-lived tokens:
you’re one debug log away from giving away the keys to your cluster.Projected tokens aren't optional. They're essential.
Adopt them today — and stop shipping security disasters.